Christopher Goodman
Research Paper
Music of India
May 12, 1998
The study of Indian film music is not only of interest to an ethnomusicologist, but can also be quite valuable to people interested in film music in general. Comparing and contrasting American and Indian film music can lead to a better understanding of each, for the differences between them make clearer the purposes and possibilities of music in each, and the similarities help point out the necessary roles music plays in films. People tend to focus on the differences of Indian film music, such as Indian films being musicals (while American musicals are almost exclusively animated), using different instrumentations, and looking to different traditions. However, just as interesting to me are the similarities between Hollywood and Bollywood (the Indian film industry).
Music fulfills similar roles in Indian and American films. Music adds meaning to what is shown on screen - it tells people what to expect and how to feel. It helps surprise viewers. Music helps us identify characters, and often gives hints to their purpose and characteristics. Music helps to establish a setting and time period. The type of music even helps us identify the type of film, as in a war, mystery, or science fiction movie.
Movie music also needs to be memorable. Take, for instance, the well known American classic, Lawrence of Arabia - the main theme from that film is unforgettable, no matter how hard one tries to delete it permanently from memory. In every parody or even vague reference to this film, the main theme is played because that is usually the first thing people remember about the film, even if they are unable to put it into words. Illaiyaraja, one of the most prolific and respected Indian film composers, is particularly well known for his talent in this respect. I personally have observed many people leaving a room humming his melodies, having only seen a few short minutes of one of his films.
Movies are expected to have hit soundtracks, or rather, along with a movie release there is usually a closely timed release of the film's songs in a purely audio format. The is the case in American films even though they usually are not musicals - the songs are sometimes used within the film (coming from boom boxes, car stereos, and dance clubs), but are more often just left for the ending credits, if used at all. A video will usually be made at least for the more popular songs, but it is not included in the film (as in Will Smith's "Men In Black"). The same, maybe even more, is expected from an Indian film's soundtrack - the popular music of India is dominated by songs from films, so the songs have to be good. Indeed, many Indian films at times seem like American films that have incorporated the music videos within the actual movie. Like American music videos, these videos often stand alone, and sometimes several videos from different films are compiled and released on one tape, such as geet aur ghazal. I am unsure about the popularity of these compilation video cassettes in India, but they seem to be reasonably popular in the area in which I have been doing my research - northern Ohio. The store I have been renting from has several of these tapes, and they are useful for deciding which films to watch, functioning almost like previews.
So, Indian film composers (more commonly referred to as Music Directors) face the same basic tasks as American film composers. The differences lie more in style, approach, and emphasis. American and Indian film composers ask themselves the same questions, they just choose different ways of answering them, and stress slightly different areas of their answers.
According to Earle Hagen, author of Scoring for Films, a film composer must answer five questions [my order]:
American composers have considerable flexibility in this regard - American audiences still expect certain stereotypes, but even these can be circumvented if done by a talented composer. Still, composers must consider the time period and setting of the film, the type of film, and the audience when deciding the style of their music. Then they can either go with the stereotype or, if they are talented and the director/producer trusts them, do something very different. American composers have this flexibility because the emphasis in American films is on background music - the music, though necessary, is meant to be perceived more subconsciously than consciously.
However, Indian films, because they are musicals, place considerable emphasis on foreground music, which is consciously perceived by the audience. Americans can accept John William's music in science fiction films because it is in the background, but it is virtually impossible for an Indian composer to use classical Indian music when a movie's characters are in modern dress, dancing in front of a rock band. Indian composers are not limited to what is depicted on screen; often instruments will be on the soundtrack that are not represented on screen, but the styles of the two must match because the audience is consciously listening to the music and simultaneously viewing a source for the music, even though it is rarely the real source.
Each Indian music director fulfills duties that are usually done by at least two people in American films - they must compose the background music and the hit songs. This means that the composers must be aware of current trends in popular music. While the American film composer can get away with only knowing how to communicate to his/her audience, leaving the songs to the songwriter, the Indian film composer must also know what his audience wants for songs and effective ways of communicating subconsciously through the score. In other words, Uttam Singh, Illaiyaraja, and any other composer is expected, for every film, to accomplish what Danny Elfman and Prince accomplished in Batman - an excellent score for a hit movie and complimentary hit songs. This is even more amazing when one considers that most composers do several films a year - Illaiyaraja has averaged over 40 a year for the past 20 years. (Rajaraman)
The flexibility Indian composers lack in choosing type of music is made up by their flexibility in choosing instrumentation. American audiences expect either electronic or orchestral scores. Variation from these types of orchestration draws attention to the score, which is usually considered undesirable. Indian composers, particularly in the case of background music, are not limited by such expectations. They can draw from western or Indian traditions, from folk and classical. They can mix and match these traditions. For instance, Illaiyaraja, in the same piece, might include nagasvaram, guitar, a string section, and electronic sounds, which he does in the song "Kuyile Kuyile" from the film Yen Bommukkutti Ammavukku. Or, as in Sindhu Bhairavi, he might use classical instruments for on screen music, and electronic keyboards and guitars for scenes that only require background music. Indeed, though Illaiyaraja is well known as a composer of light classical Indian music, his favorite instrument is guitar, and he is often pictured with it. (Rajaraman)
Flexibility in orchestration is often taken to unexpected extremes by Illaiyaraja, while still composing music that relates well to what is on screen. On one extreme, as stated in the last paragraph, there is the very classical work Sindhu Bhairavi, which still uses electronic and western instruments. Illaiyaraja uses synthesizers and samplers to expand the capabilities of acoustic instruments. "..[B]y combining sounds derived and fabricated from mechanical and electronic sources with real acoustic sources, he imparts more meaning, depth, and relevance to the film sound." (Mohan 120) But the other extreme includes a "kaleidoscope" of sounds and styles. "His mastery over modulation and sense of timing and rhythmic counterpoint, are clearly evident in his uncanny crisscrossing of instruments and styles." (Mohan 120) This is very evident in the Yesudas CD of some of Illaiyaraja's hits.
This is the most important question a film composer must ask. This question relates strongly to the purpose of music - the composer must decide the specific reasons for adding music to the scene. Sometimes the answer is reasonably easy - the script calls for music on screen, music known as source music. This happens very often in Indian films because a common method of advancing a plot and introducing characters is to use a song. But the question is more difficult in places where the script does not specify source music. Often, this is not left up to the composer alone to figure out; the director, producer, music director, and sometimes other people work together to figure these situations out.
Music is commonly used for thematic reasons in Indian films, particularly in the leitmotif sense. In Dil to Pagal Hai(Chopra), Uttam Singh has given Rahul, the male lead, his own theme - a melody that is easily recognized, and that is almost always introduced by his whistling. This motif is used to identify him throughout the film, and is even used by Pooja, one of the two female leads, within the film to recognize him. This theme is also toyed with stylistically - for instance, when Rahul forgets to put on his pants in a store scene, his theme is played very comically, given a "wah wah" sound.
Illaiyaraja also uses leitmotifs, but in away I have never seen them used before, particularly in Sindhu Bhairavi. Illaiyaraja gives Sindhu a dual melody. One is almost sinister sounding, and is played on a plucked instrument. The other is a very sweet, infectious flute melody. These two themes work very well for Sindhu, capturing her character in just a few short measures of material. There is enough substance to this theme that Illaiyaraja does not need to change the instrumentation or style of the melody; he merely shortens or lengthens it when necessary, and presents the portions of the melody that relate best to the particular scene and emotion. In particularly emotionally confusing scenes, like when Sindhu expresses her love for JKB (a married man, whom she first admired for his musicianship), the conflict within her theme works perfectly. I have never encountered such substance in just a single, short melody - which can express so much without the aid of varying orchestration.
Other reasons for adding music to a scene include smoothing an abrupt scene change (particularly when the scene changes to a different location or time of day), showing the passage of time, or helping to smooth a shortening of a section of a plot. Indian and American film musics function very similarly in these instances, thought there is some slight differentiation in treatment.
The most common reasons for adding music are to heighten the drama of important scenes and the climaxes of the movie. Here is where the big difference lies between American and Indian film music, although one still cannot say that there is a total difference. At these moments, American scores tend to have thick, or at least intense, orchestration. Indian films also do this, but because the music is so often in the foreground, they take it even further by bursting into song. At the very least, as in Sindhu Bhairavi, there is a music video sequence.
This is another question which is rarely left for the composer alone to answer. Again, sometimes this is decided by the script. However, this is an important question for Indian film composers, and because composers work so closely with directors, they have a bit of flexibility in answering this question.
Where can mean a couple of different things in this context. It can be referring to the choice between placing the music in the foreground or the background. Here is an area where considerable difference can be observed between Indian and American films. The decision might be made that the music would be more effective if consciously perceived by the audience - for instance, a character singing a short line or two expressing her feelings, a lounge singer singing a love song when the two lovers meet, or wedding music at a wedding. This is done when the director and composer want the viewer to consciously make a mental connection between the music and what is on screen. If the desired effect is more emotional, background music is often used - at least, this is the case with American films, which adhere to this method rather strictly. Indian composers and directors often make similar decisions, following similar guidelines to these examples. However, in Indian films, the method is just as often reversed, most commonly, as stated in the why section, in the song sequences. In this case, the emotional power of song, as opposed to instrumental music, is used to heighten the emotional effect of a scene. One of the best, and also stereotypical, examples of this is the love scene from Aradhana in which the two main characters express their love by singing to each other.
Where can also mean "what point in time within this scene." It might not be appropriate or desirable for music to last for the entire length of a scene. In this sense, deciding where music should be depends heavily on how the why question was answered. If music is required only for a scene change, then the composer needs to figure out a way to end the music; if the music continues through the whole scene, it might be distracting. If the music's role is to help a moment be even more surprising, it might be good to have the music start suddenly at the precise moment of the surprise. Similarly, if the music is supposed to add suspense, it might be very intense and then suddenly stop, giving a very heavy, suspenseful silence. If the music's purpose is for mickey mousing, in which the music imitates and synchronizes with on screen physical movement, then the music might only be active when the particular action is happening.
For American film composers, this is where the art - the craftsmanship - of film scoring becomes evident (at least when studied). Deciding when, and necessarily how, the music enters and leaves needs to be given much thought. This is because American film music is supposed to be experienced primarily through the subconscious. Composers spend a lot of time and energy developing their own personal techniques for dealing with these problems. This is a topic that I have spent much time studying in American films.
An earlier plan for this project was to see how Indian composers dealt with this problem. To my initial surprise, they seem to care little about when and how. After watching a few more films, and reading more about the nature of Indian films, the reasons for this became quite clear. The answer is, yet again, in the foreground versus background issue. As stated several times before, Indian films place more emphasis on foreground music. Because the films are musicals, the audience is consciously aware of the music. Consequently, there is no need to "sneak" the music in so that the audience is not disturbed. This does not mean that the issue is ignored - abruptly starting a song is still undesirable, but there is no need to be overly concerned about transitions and entrances - short and simple are the operative words. Often, a simple fade will do. Somewhat disconcerting to American viewers is the common technique of simply starting the music at the same instant as a scene change. But, after one grows used to it, one realizes that it is usually the beginning of a song or important instrumental piece.
Indian film music, when analyzed, is surprisingly similar to American film music. The primary differences arise from differences in culture and the shift in emphasis to foreground as opposed to background music. Even some apparently large differences, such as the domination of popular music by Indian film songs, are not quite so large when one takes a second look at the American film industry. However, most similarities are in how the music functions. As for how the music sounds, well, like curry, it is a unique blend of everything; we can recognize most of the ingredients, and can appreciate its flavor, but the combination is uniquely Indian.
Bibliography:
Video Cassettes:
Samanta, Shakti: Aradhana; Music Director - S. D. Burman; Shakti Productions, United Producers; No date available, but 1960's according to Shaila Torgalicar (store keeper)
Balachander, K.: Sindhu Bhairavi; Music Director - Illaiyaraja; 1986
Chopra, Yash: Dil To Pagal Hai; Music Director - Uttam Singh; 1997
geet aur ghazal: International Video; no date given (compilation of hit film song videos)
Audio Recordings:
Illaiyaraja: Dazzling Duets of Yesudas; Oriental Records, inc., New York: No date, but after 1986
Printed Material:
Mohan, Anuradha: Illaiyaraja: Composer as Phenomenon
Carlin, Sr., Dan: Music in Film and Video Productions; Focal Press, Boston, Massachusetts; 1991
Hagen, Earle: Scoring for Films; Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., Los Angeles, California; 1989
Karlin, Fred: Listening to Movies; Schirmer Books, New York; 1994
Prendergast, Roy M.: Listening to Movies; W.W.Norton & Co., New York; 1992
Goodman, Christopher: "Composing Film Music"; 1997
Web Sites:
Rajaraman, K.; Palanivel, S.; Ramki; Ravindran, B.: Tamil Film Music Page; http://www.tfmpage.com/ (was: http://coldfusion.tfmpage.com/index.cfm)
Patel, Dharmesh: Madhuri Dixit's Unofficial Home Page; http://megahertz.njit.edu/~dxp8108/index.html
Ramchandani, Avinash: Planet Bollywood: Film Review: Dil to Pagal Hai; http://www.indolink.com/bollywood/Film/diltopagal.html